Consider a particle of unit mass, which is prepared at $t=0$ at $x=0$ at rest $v=0$. The particle is exposed to piece--wise constant external force $f_i$ at $i-1< t \le i$, with $i=1,2,...,10$. Let $a=(x(t=10),v(t=10))$ be a vector composed of coordinate and velocity of a particle at $t=10$. Derive the matrix $A$ such that $a=Af$ (note that $A$ is of a shape $2\times10$). Using (a numerical) SVD decomposition, evaluate $f$ of minimal Euclidean norm such that $a=(1,0)$.
\item (5) Consider the function $f(x)=10\sin(x)$. Generate a dataset $D$ that will consist
of $n =7$ points drawn as follows. For each point randomly draw $x_i$ uniformly in $[0,6]$ and define $y_i = f(x_i)+\epsilon_i$,
where $\epsilon_i$ are iid standard gaussian random numbers. Generate a sample dataset from this distribution, plot it together with the true function $f(x)$. Fit a linear $l(x)= w_0+ w_1x $ and a cubic $c(x)= w_0+ w_1x + w_2x^2+ w_3x^3$ models to D. Plot those models together with the dataset $D$.
\item (7) Download the \href{https://www.dropbox.com/s/qgz1x67t10fd7hf/data.npz?dl=0}{file} with matrices $A$ and $C$ (an image and a filter). Open it as follows: \lstset{language=Python}
\lstset{frame=lines}
\lstset{label={lst:code_direct}}
\lstset{basicstyle=\ttfamily}
\begin{lstlisting}
with np.load('data.npz') as data:
A, C = data['A'], data['C']
\end{lstlisting}
It is convenient to order the matrix $A$ into a column vector $a$:
\lstset{language=Python}
\lstset{frame=lines}
\lstset{label={lst:code_direct}}
\lstset{basicstyle=\ttfamily}
\begin{lstlisting}
def mat2vec(A):
A = np.flipud(A)
a = np.reshape(A, np.prod(A.shape))
return a
\end{lstlisting}
with inverse transform, from vector $a$ to matrix $A$ given by
\lstset{language=Python}
\lstset{frame=lines}
\lstset{label={lst:code_direct}}
\lstset{basicstyle=\ttfamily}
\begin{lstlisting}
def vec2mat(a, shape):
A = np.reshape(a, shape)
A = np.flipud(A)
return A
\end{lstlisting}
The image, stored in the matrix $A$ is obtained from certain original image $A_0$ via convoluting it with the filter $C$ and adding some noise. The filter $C$ blurs an image, simultaneously increasing its size from $16\times51$ to $25\times60$. With the use of associated vectors $a$ and $a_0$, one may write
$$
a_0\to a = C a_0 + \epsilon,
$$
where $\epsilon$ is a vector of iid Gaussian random numbers. Your task will be to recover an original image $A_0$, being supplied by the image $A$ and the filter $C$.
\begin{itemize}
\item Plot the image $A$.
\item Explore how the filter $C$ acts on images.
\item A naive way to recover $A_0$ from $A$ would be to solve $a = C a_0$ for $a_0$. Is this system under-- or over--determined? Using SVD of the filter matrix $C$, evaluate $a_0$ and plot the corresponding $A_0$.
\item In order to improve the result, consider keeping certain fraction of singular values of $C$. Choose a value delivering the best recovery quality.
Using the method of Lagrange multipliers, and assuming $A^TA$ to be invertible, derive explicit expression for optimal $x$.
\item (20) Here we will consider the problem of localization of points in a 2D plane. Consider $n$ points, for which we have the \emph{approximate} locations $r_i=\left(x_i, y_i\right)$. We measure $k$ angles between certain points: $\theta_{ijk}=\angle(r_k-r_i, r_j-r_i)$. Our goal is to use the results of the measurements to improve the estimation of the locations $r_i$.
To be specific, consider $n=3$ points, for which we have approximate locations $r_1=(-1,0),\;r_2=(0, 1),\;r_3=(1,0)$ and $k=1$ measurement $\theta_{123}=9\pi/40$. Clearly, our estimates $r_{1,2,3}$ are not consistent with the measured angle and we have to adjust the estimate: $r_i\to\bar{r}_i= r_i+dr_i$ where $dr_i$ should be found from the condition
which can be linearized in $dr_i$, assuming this correction will end up small. In this approach, one constructs a single (in general, $k$) equation for six (in general, $2n$) variables, so the system will typically by underdetermined. We can consider this system in the least squares sense, which amounts to determining the smallest correction to all $r_i$ which makes the updated locations consistent with observations. In the particular numerical example above, one may find $dr_1=(-h, 0),\;dr_2=(h, -h),\; dr_3=(0, h)$ where $h=\pi/80\approx0.04$.
Your task is to write the code, which will accept the current estimate of the positions $r_i$ ($n\times2$, float) and measurement results $\theta_{ijk}$, which are specified by i) indices of points ($k\times3$, int) and ii) angles ($k$, float); and will output the derived correction to the point positions $dr_i$ ($n\times2$, float). You can use the numerical example in this exercise to test your code.
